- accident
- An unplanned signal drifts in from outside the experiment; the researcher notices. Penicillin: mold contaminated a plate.
- salvaged failure
- The planned experiment ran as designed but produced the wrong result; the researcher kept the wrong result. Super Glue: formula failed as a gunsight, stuck to everything.
- side effect
- A treatment developed for condition A turns out to do something useful for unrelated condition B. Viagra: angina trial, patients reported erections.
- cross pollination
- A researcher who sits at the intersection of two fields imports method knowledge from one into the other. GLP-1: an endocrinologist uses reptile venom biology to probe human gut hormones.
- tool migration
- A concrete artifact — instrument, dataset, codebase, infrastructure — built for task A gets reused for task B. Transformer: translation architecture becomes the backbone of general-purpose AI.
- analogy
- A pattern observed in nature or another domain is deliberately borrowed as a design. Velcro: burrs on a dog's fur become a fastener.